An atom is electrically neutral, while an ion carries a positive or negative charge due to a gain or loss of electrons.

The main types of chemical bonds are ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds.

The mole is the unit for measuring the amount of substance, and Avogadro's number (6.022 x 10^23) represents the number of particles in one mole.

Endothermic reactions absorb heat from the surroundings, while exothermic reactions release heat to the surroundings.

A catalyst increases the rate of a chemical reaction by providing an alternative pathway with lower activation energy, without being consumed in the reaction.

Oxidation is the loss of electrons, while reduction is the gain of electrons in a redox (oxidation-reduction) reaction.

The factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction include temperature, concentration, surface area, and the presence of a catalyst.

A strong acid ionizes completely in water, while a weak acid ionizes only partially in water.

Equilibrium constants provide a quantitative measure of the extent of a chemical reaction at equilibrium, indicating the ratio of products to reactants.

A saturated solution is one in which no more solute can be dissolved in the solvent at a given temperature, while an unsaturated solution can still dissolve more solute.

A physical change involves a change in the physical properties of a substance without changing its chemical composition, while a chemical change involves the formation of new substances with different chemical properties.

Activation energy is the minimum energy required for reactants to undergo a chemical reaction, and it determines the rate of the reaction.

A homogeneous mixture has a uniform composition throughout, while a heterogeneous mixture consists of two or more distinct phases or components.

A solvent is the dissolving medium in a solution, while a solute is the substance that is dissolved in the solvent.

A buffer solution resists changes in pH when small amounts of an acid or base are added to it, maintaining a relatively stable pH.

An empirical formula shows the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound, while a molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.

The limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely consumed in a chemical reaction, limiting the amount of product that can be formed.

A strong base ionizes completely in water, while a weak base ionizes only partially in water.

The ideal gas law relates the pressure, volume, amount of substance, and temperature of an ideal gas, allowing for the calculation of gas properties.

A reversible reaction can proceed in both the forward and reverse directions, while an irreversible reaction proceeds only in the forward direction.

Le Chatelier's principle states that when a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system will shift in a direction that relieves the stress.

In a polar covalent bond, the shared electrons are not equally shared between the atoms, resulting in a partial positive and negative charge, while in a nonpolar covalent bond, the electrons are shared equally.

Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to attract shared electrons in a covalent bond, and the difference in electronegativity between atoms determines the polarity of the bond.

A strong electrolyte dissociates completely into ions when dissolved in water, while a weak electrolyte only partially dissociates into ions.

The Periodic Table arranges elements in order of increasing atomic number and groups elements with similar properties, providing a systematic way to study and understand the properties of elements and their compounds.

A Lewis structure represents the arrangement of electrons around atoms in a molecule, while a resonance structure is one of two or more Lewis structures that can be drawn for a particular molecule to represent the delocalization of electrons.

Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relationships between reactants and products in a chemical reaction, allowing for the calculation of amounts of substances involved.

A nucleophile is a species that donates an electron pair to form a new covalent bond, while an electrophile is a species that accepts an electron pair to form a new covalent bond.

Thermochemistry is the study of the energy changes that occur during chemical reactions, allowing for the calculation of heat flow and the determination of reaction enthalpies.

A condensation reaction is a chemical reaction in which two molecules are joined together with the removal of a small molecule, such as water, while a hydrolysis reaction is the opposite process, where a molecule is broken down by the addition of water.

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-based compounds and is essential for understanding biological processes, as many biomolecules, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, are organic compounds.

Stereoisomers have the same molecular formula and connectivity of atoms but differ in their spatial arrangement, while structural isomers have the same molecular formula but a different connectivity of atoms.

Nuclear chemistry is the study of the behavior and properties of atomic nuclei, including radioactivity, nuclear reactions, and the applications of nuclear processes in fields such as medicine and energy production.

An acid-base titration is used to determine the concentration of an acid or base in a solution by neutralization with a standard solution of known concentration, while a redox titration is used to determine the concentration of an oxidizing or reducing agent in a solution.

Quantum mechanics provides a fundamental understanding of the behavior of electrons and their distribution in atoms and molecules, explaining the nature of chemical bonding and the properties of materials.

A sigma (σ) bond is a covalent bond formed by the head-on overlap of atomic orbitals, while a pi (π) bond is a covalent bond formed by the sideways overlap of atomic orbitals.

Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation, and it is used in chemical analysis to determine the structure and composition of molecules by analyzing their absorption or emission spectra.

A reducing agent is a substance that donates electrons in a redox reaction, causing the oxidation of another substance, while an oxidizing agent is a substance that accepts electrons in a redox reaction, causing the reduction of another substance.

Computational chemistry involves the use of computer simulations and computational methods to model and study chemical systems, properties, and reactions, providing insights and predictions that complement experimental studies.

The primary structure of a protein refers to the sequence of amino acids, the secondary structure describes the local spatial arrangement of the polypeptide backbone, and the tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional shape of the protein.

Green chemistry is the design of chemical products and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances, promoting sustainability and reducing the environmental impact of chemical processes.

An endothermic phase change, such as melting or vaporization, absorbs heat from the surroundings, while an exothermic phase change, such as condensation or freezing, releases heat to the surroundings.

The free energy change of a chemical reaction determines its spontaneity, with a negative free energy change indicating that the reaction is spontaneous and favored, while a positive free energy change indicates that the reaction is non-spontaneous.

A strong base, such as sodium hydroxide, ionizes completely in water, while a weak base, such as ammonia, ionizes only partially in water.

Coordination compounds are complexes formed by the coordination of metal ions with ligands, and they have important applications in areas such as catalysis, materials science, and biochemistry.

In a substitution reaction, an atom or a group is replaced by another atom or group in a molecule, while in an elimination reaction, two atoms or groups are removed from a molecule, often resulting in the formation of a double bond.

Electrochemistry involves the study of chemical reactions that involve the transfer of electrons, and it plays a crucial role in the development of energy storage devices, such as batteries and fuel cells, as well as in electrochemical energy conversion processes.